What did medieval cities really look like?

Medieval cities are often imagined as dark, dirty, and lightless labyrinths of narrow streets. This image doesn't always resonate with the beauty of ancient castles and cathedrals. This is because the image of the "Dark Middle Ages" conceals a far more complex and picturesque reality. Before the advent of street lamps, gas lighting, and electricity, life in megacities flourished by the light of torches, candles, and moonlight, while streets, markets, and taverns lived by their own nightly rules. What did medieval cities really look like, and were they truly shrouded in darkness and despair?

European cities of the Middle Ages can be divided into two types. The first are large settlements founded during the Roman Empire: Naples, Marseille, Paris, London, Genoa, and Cologne. The second type are cities that emerged directly during the Middle Ages, such as Bruges, Amsterdam, and Prague.

After the fall of classical civilization, the successor cities of the Roman Empire gradually lost their former glory. Their populations dwindled and they became impoverished. However, they continued to serve as administrative and spiritual centers. Some survived thanks to established trade contacts with the countries of the East.

The cities that emerged in the Middle Ages were built quickly and immediately experienced rapid growth thanks to the development of trade and crafts. However, they were less impressive, lacking the legacy of a magnificent empire that built temples, amphitheaters, and aqueducts.

Medieval towns sprouted like mushrooms after rain. Peasants learned to grow more grain, creating a surplus that could be sold. Markets became permanent trading places, and artisans, merchants, and runaway peasants seeking a better life settled around them. The city beckoned with the opportunity to earn money, the chance to start a new life far from the tiresome landowner.

But this freedom proved relative. Formally, the city belonged to the local feudal lord—the Duke of Burgundy, the Count of Flanders, or the bishop. The city's lord imposed taxes, judged, and administered justice, while the townspeople obediently toiled. At first, this suited everyone: the feudal lord received income, the townspeople received protection and order.

However, the wealthier the cities became, the more discontent grew. Merchants and artisans grew rich, but had no voice in governance. Taxes rose, and local lords became increasingly brazen. And then the most interesting thing began: urban rebellions.

Italian cities were the first to say a decisive "no" to their masters. In the 11th and 12th centuries, Milan, Florence, Venice, and dozens of other cities in Northern Italy revolted and won their independence. They transformed themselves into communes—self-governing republics where power rested not with the feudal lord, but with the citizens themselves. It was a true revolution that changed the face of medieval Europe.

When it comes to medieval European cities, the period from the 11th to the 15th centuries is emblematic. The chaotic development was exacerbated by narrow, crooked streets without pavement. Wooden or stone paving, now considered typical of the Middle Ages, was the exception rather than the rule.

During the rainy season, the lack of roads in cities became catastrophic and could paralyze traffic. Sometimes, the muddy roads even forced church services to be cancelled, preventing parishioners from reaching them. It's worth noting that there was no organized street cleaning, leaving piles of rat-infested garbage and a terrible stench in the way of city residents.

Buildings were so close together that their roofs often completely blocked out sunlight. The lack of sewerage forced residents to deal with waste themselves. Consequently, slop, dirty water, and the contents of chamber pots were simply dumped out of windows onto the streets, directly onto the heads of passersby.

The sludge flowed along the roads, collected in ruts and ditches, and then ended up in the nearest river. Later, sewerage ditches were added, but the principle of waste disposal remained unchanged: everything ended up in the local waterway. This approach, which poisoned the city, continued to be practiced in some places until the second half of the 19th century. For example, in progressive London, sewerage systems with treatment plants were only built in the late 1850s.

At night, medieval cities were plunged into impenetrable darkness. It was pierced only by the light of torches held by the occasional traveler and the fires by which the city guards warmed themselves. The first semblance of street lighting appeared only in the 14th century in Paris. And even then, it was symbolic, consisting of a few large torches burning at major intersections and squares.

During the day, things looked much more cheerful. The streets and squares were filled with a motley, noisy crowd. Because the streets were narrow and crooked, it wasn't always possible for two carts to pass each other. Residents of some houses erected stone and wooden pillars to protect their gates and walls from the impacts of passing carts.

Constant noise was typical for cities of that time. The cries of merchants, children playing, drunken revelers, and arguing townspeople intertwined with the cries of domestic animals and the din of workshops. Add to this the ringing of bells, which not only invited parishioners to services but also marked the time and announced important events.

The city squares were the most vibrant places to be. Organized and spontaneous trade flourished there, where citizens socialized and discussed key issues. The squares weren't just a place for selling everything from vegetables and fish to weapons. Itinerant performers also performed there, wandering healers saw patients, and fortune tellers and soothsayers predicted the future.

Public executions were a special, long-awaited form of entertainment for residents of medieval cities. They were held on pre-announced days in specially designated squares. For example, in Paris, this was the Place de Grève, and in London, Tyburn Square. Thousands of residents and visitors alike would gather to watch the executions. Entire families would come, even bringing their children.

Royal decrees and the mayors' orders were announced in the squares. During wartime, troops were mustered and militias formed there. On holidays, public festivities were held and mystery plays were performed. It can be said that city squares played a key role in the life of a medieval metropolis.

Finding your way around medieval cities was incredibly difficult. Not all streets had names, and house numbers were nonexistent. People had to find their way around by the names of squares, churches, large shops, and workshops. In the 13th century, Paris was divided into arrondissements, and street names gradually began to be given to the city. But this was an isolated case—the French capital had always been considered a progressive city.

The first names were given based on the profession of the people who inhabited the street, their nationality, or other characteristics. This is how Pekarskie Streets, Jewish Lanes, and Portovye Syezdy (Port Exits) emerged. To find someone, a stranger had to ask passersby or shout out their name in the middle of the noisy street.

Just like today, cities of that time had prestigious and less prestigious neighborhoods. These determined real estate prices and the general population. Houses in the city center and large squares were considered elite. The poor settled near the city walls, near the sewage-stinking river, or the bustling port. Evening strolls in poor neighborhoods were deadly dangerous—you could be killed simply to make sure your pockets were empty.

Today, we are amazed by the magnificent Gothic cathedrals, exquisite Renaissance palaces, and Baroque mansions. But it's important to understand that all this splendor was lost in the ugliness and squalor of ordinary urban buildings. Most houses were wooden, and only wealthy families could afford a stone home.

In most European cities, enclosed by fortified walls, space was at a premium. Therefore, strict limits on the floor area of buildings were in place. Houses had narrow facades, with two or three small windows on each floor. Any excess in construction had to be paid for with hard cash, so the homes of the wealthy and aristocratic were visible from afar.

The homes of the nobility in medieval cities were striking in their scale and richness of decoration. Some residences rivaled entire city blocks in size and included everything needed for life and comfort. In addition to living quarters, they contained courtyards and gardens, chapels and prayer rooms, game and reception halls, bakeries, warehouses, baths, armories, and numerous other service spaces reflecting the luxury and power of their owners.

Fires were a true scourge of medieval cities. Sometimes cities would burn completely and literally have to be rebuilt from scratch. Flames did not discriminate between rich and poor. They destroyed even stone buildings, as the roofs and ceilings were made of wood. A catastrophic fire could be caused by arson, an enemy attack, or simply a candle left burning on the table by a cook.

Medieval cities became death traps during disease epidemics. By the time the Black Death first struck in the 14th century, people already understood how the disease spread. Therefore, authorities tried to isolate the population from the outside world, locking the gates and strictly limiting visitation. Sometimes, small towns were completely wiped out by plague or fever.

Things were no better during wartime. A city's siege became a serious ordeal for its inhabitants. Gates were locked, sometimes even walled up. Food and water were strictly rationed, and the slightest disobedience was punishable by death. Some sieges lasted for months, sometimes years.

During this time, residents lived in near starvation, relying on water from polluted wells or puddles. During these periods, they ate anything that moved. Cats, dogs, rats, insects, and sometimes even people ended up on the dinner table. Everyone who could stand, from children to the elderly, participated in repelling enemy attacks. The survival of the entire population usually depended on the success of the defense.

Observing the remnants of medieval luxury on the streets of Paris, Milan, or Prague, we rarely consider that time has preserved for us the best, the most substantial. Palaces, mansions, and cathedrals built to last have not been ground to dust by the merciless millstones of history.

Built in various eras, architectural monuments have outlived ordinary buildings and today create a false impression among tourists of "glorious times" of noble knights, beautiful ladies, and talented architects. Dirt, stench, and squalor are a thing of the past and do not detract from the grand palace complexes, majestic abbeys, and mysterious castles.

Medieval cities were a world of contrasts—majestic cathedrals coexisted with poverty, the aroma of spices with an unbearable stench, and the bustle of the squares concealed life and death. Centuries have passed, and only legends remain of the darkness of those streets. But have you ever wondered if you could survive—let alone live—in such a city without electricity, sewage, or silence, where every day teetered between celebration and disaster?